From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Journalism is the profession of writing or communicating,
formally employed by publications and broadcasters, for the benefit of
a particular community of people. The writer or journalist is expected to use facts to describe events, ideas, or issues that are relevant to the public. Journalists (also known as news analysts, reporters, and correspondents) gather information,
and broadcast it so we remain informed about local, state, national,
and international events. They can also present their points of view on
current issues and report on the actions of the government, public
officials, corporate executives, interest groups, media houses, and
those who hold social power or authority. Journalism is described as The Fourth Estate.[1] [2]
In journalism, a story refers to a single article, news item or feature. A story is usually relevant to a single event, issue, theme, or profile of a person. Stories are usually inspired through news pegs (the central premise of the story). Correspondents report on news occurring in the main, locally, from their own country, or from foreign cities where they are stationed.[3]
Today, most reporters file information or write their stories electronically from remote locations. In many cases, breaking stories
are written by random staff members, through information collected and
submitted by other reporters who are out on the field gathering
information for an event that has just occurred and needs to be
broadcast instantly. Radio and television reporters often compose
stories and report "live" from the scene. Some journalists also
interpret the news or offer opinions and analysis to readers, viewers,
or listeners. In this role, they are called commentators or columnists.
Media
Print
In a print publication, the first phase of presenting a story finds
the reporter involved in investigation, observation of events, and
interviews with people. Reporters take notes and also take photographs
or shoot videos, either on their own, or through a photographer
or camera person. In the second phase, they organize the material,
determine the focus or emphasis (identify the peg), and finally write
their stories. The story is then edited by news or copy-editors, who function from the news desk.
The headline of the story is always decided by the news desk, and
practically never by the reporter or the writer of the piece. Often,
the news desk also heavily re-writes or changes the style and tone of
the first draft prepared by the reporter / writer originally. Finally,
a collection of stories that have been picked for the newspaper or
magazine edition, are layed out on dummy (trial) pages, and after the chief editor has approved the content, style and language in the material, it is sent for publishing. The writer is given a byline
for the piece that is published; his or her name appears alongside the
article. This process takes place according to the frequency of the
publication. News can be published in a variety of formats (broadsheet, tabloid, magazine and periodical publications) as well as periods (daily, weekly, biweekly, fortnightly or monthly).
Television
In a broadcast setup (television), journalists or reporters are also
involved with editing the video material that has been shot alongside
their research, and in working on the visual narrative of the story. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the news story at the beginning or end of the video clip.
In television or broadcast journalism, news analysts (also called news-casters or news anchors) examine, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources of information. Anchors present this as news, either videotaped or live, through transmissions from on-the-scene reporters (news correspondents).
News clips can vary in length; there are some which may be as long
as ten minutes, others that need to fit in all the relevant information
and material in two or three minutes. News channels these days have
also begun to host special documentary films that stretch for much longer durations and are able to explore a news subject or issue in greater detail.
Wire services
Wire services are typically news agencies that provide news
to publications, broadcasters and media houses by the minute. They work
through technical tie-ups and arrangements with practically all
mainstream news organizations, who pay them for the content that they
provide. The public has no direct access to this content, unless it is
carried by a local newspaper or television channel. Most of these
agencies, like Reuters for instance, work on international, local, and national fronts.
Often, routine news is sourced directly from these agencies,
by the news desk. Routine news is information related to announcements,
press conferences, statements made by government or corporate
officials, and any other mundane facts. The news desk receives updates
from agencies every few minutes. Information related to the outbreak of
a calamity, or important developments concerning national issues is
usually obtained from agencies itself. These news items often go
without any reporter's byline, that is, the credit is given to the
newspaper in general, or is attributed to the agency that has sent out
the information (or "broken the story"). If not very impactful, they
are carried as small news briefs. On television, these items are the snippets displayed on the ticker:
the rolling text at the bottom of the screen. Reporters who work for
agencies do not usually get any credit for their work, as it is sent
out as an "agency copy". Wire agencies are extremely important to the
functioning of journalism; they are the backbones of most news
organisations today, who heavily depend on them for important, routine
content. They provide the material that an organisation may not be able
to cover through its own limited resources alone.
Exclusive stories on the contrary, are the stories or news
items that a publication or channel has obtained through its own
resources; it is when a reporter associated with a particular
organisation has found certain information through personal sources,
and not through public announcements or from PR officials. The
exclusivity of a story is also dependent on the condition that no other
news channel or publication carries it simultaneously. Often, a
reporter may find an exclusive story, but finds that it has lost its
exclusivity when his or her source gives out that information to other
newspapers and channels. While routine stories may provide the basic
material that is required, exclusive stories are the ones that form the
editorial identity or the voice of the newspaper.
Morning newspapers are obliged to carry both routine and exclusive
news; afternoon editions usually have to go a step further and work
hard on follow-ups and their own exclusive stories. Most
afternoon dailies do not carry routine news at all. Their content is
lighter, and is meant to be a second reflection of the day's events.
Magazines and weeklies also focus entirely on features and exclusive
stories.
Internet
The Internet has allowed the formal and informal publication of news stories through mainstream medial outlets as well as blogs and other self-published news stories.
Newscasters
Newscasters function at large stations and networks that usually
specialise in a particular type of news, such as sports or weather.
Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and
forecast weather conditions. They gather information from national
satellite weather services, wire services, and local and regional
weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained meteorologists and
develop their own weather forecasts. (See the statement on atmospheric
scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sportscasters select, write, and
deliver sports news. This may include interviews with sports
personalities and coverage of games and other sporting events.
Article topics and writing
Articles are written about topics that are considered notable by the
editors of the publication, with notability varying depending on the
focus and audience of the publisher. Large agencies or companies may
have reporters that are specialized to discuss specific topics (a beat); smaller agencies are more likely to have a small number of reporters covering all areas of interest. Investigative reports
may cover lengthy stories that require days or weeks to gather
sufficient information. Articles must be produced to meet a limited deadline
determined by the broadcast or print time of the specific publication
and working hours may vary according to the deadlines set and depending
on projects or last-minute developments may be long or irregular.
Standards
Most of the time, journalists are expected to be responsible[4] and objective[5]
in their analysis, and are supposed to refrain from personal biases or
prejudices. However, this is one of the most debated of all
journalistic values, and many today feel that objectivity is a myth.[6]
Grade The News, An American Website identified seven yardsticks on
the basis of which it judges the standards of some local media house's
news quality. These yardsticks are newsworthiness, context, explanation, local relevance, civic contribution, enterprise and fairness.[7]
Styles
Newspapers and periodicals often contain features (see under heading feature style at article news style) written by journalists, many of whom specialize in this form of in-depth journalistic writing.
Feature articles are usually longer forms of writing; more attention
is paid to style than it is in straight news reports. They are often
combined with photographs, drawings or other "art." They may also be
highlighted by typographic effects or colors.
Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news
stories, because while a journalist must apply the same amount of
effort to accurately gather and report the facts of the story, he or
she must also find a creative and interesting way to write it. The lead (or first two paragraphs of the story; see Nut graf) must grab the reader's attention and yet accurately embody the ideas of the article.
In the last half of the 20th Century the line between straight news
reporting and feature writing has blurred. Journalists and publications
today experiment with different approaches to writing. Tom Wolfe, Gay Talese, Hunter S. Thompson
are some of these examples. Urban and alternative weekly newspapers go
even further in blurring the distinction, and many magazines include
more features than straight news.
Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats,
and many TV shows that claimed to be news shows were not considered as
such by traditional critics, because their content and methods do not
adhere to accepted journalistic standards. National Public Radio,
on the other hand, is considered a good example of mixing straight news
reporting, features, and combinations of the two, usually meeting
standards of high quality. Other US public radio news organizations
have achieved similar results. A majority of newspapers still maintain
a clear distinction between news and features, as do most television
and radio news organizations.
Sports journalism
-
Sports journalism covers many aspects of human athletic competition,
and is an integral part of most journalism products, including
newspapers, magazines, and radio and television news broadcasts. While
some critics don't consider sports journalism to be true journalism,
the prominence of sports in Western culture has justified the attention
of journalists to not just the competitive events in sports, but also
to athletes and the business of sports.
Sports journalism in the United States has traditionally been
written in a looser, more creative and more opinionated tone than
traditional journalistic writing; the emphasis on accuracy and
underlying fairness is still a part of sports journalism. An emphasis
on the accurate description of the statistical performances of athletes
is also an important part of sports journalism.
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Science journalism
-
Science journalism is a relatively new branch of journalism, in
which journalists' reporting conveys information on science topics to
the public. Science journalists must understand and interpret very
detailed, technical and sometimes jargon-laden information and render
it into interesting reports that are comprehensible to consumers of
news media.
Scientific journalists also must choose which developments in
science merit news coverage, as well as cover disputes within the
scientific community with a balance of fairness to both sides but also
with a devotion to the facts.
Many, but not all, journalists covering science have training in the
sciences they cover, including several medical journalists who cover
medicine.
Investigative journalism
-
Investigative journalism, in which journalists investigate and expose unethical immoral and illegal
behavior by individuals, businesses and government agencies, can be
complicated, time-consuming and expensive — requiring teams of
journalists, months of research, interviews (sometimes repeated
interviews) with numerous people, long-distance travel, computers to
analyze public-record databases, or use of the company's legal staff to
secure documents under freedom of information laws.
Because of its inherently confrontational nature, this kind of
reporting is often the first to suffer from budget cutbacks or
interference from outside the news department. Investigative reporting
done poorly can also expose journalists and media organizations to
negative reaction from the subjects of investigations and the public,
and accusations of gotcha journalism. When conducted correctly it can
bring the attention of the public and government to problems and
conditions that the public deem need to be addressed, and can win
awards and recognition to the journalists involved and the media outlet
that did the reporting.
New journalism
-
Main article: New Journalism
New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news
writing and journalism which used literary techniques deemed
unconventional at the time. The term was codified with its current
meaning by Tom Wolfe in a 1973 collection of journalism articles.
It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as
conversational speech, first-person point of view, recording everyday
details and telling the story using scenes. Though it seems
undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of reporting
including strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the
primary source. To get "inside the head" of a character, the journalist
asks the subject what they were thinking or how they felt.
Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature writing or book-length reporting projects.
Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In
addition to Wolfe, writers whose work has fallen under the title "new
journalism" include Norman Mailer, Hunter S. Thompson, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, George Plimpton and Gay Talese.
Gonzo journalism
-
Gonzo journalism is a type of journalism popularized by the American writer Hunter S. Thompson, author of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72 and The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved,
among other stories and books. Gonzo journalism is characterized by its
punchy style, rough language, and ostensible disregard for conventional
journalistic writing forms and customs. More importantly, the
traditional objectivity of the journalist is given up through immersion
into the story itself, as in New Journalism, and the reportage is taken
from a first-hand, participatory perspective, sometimes using an author surrogate such as Thompson's Raoul Duke.
Gonzo journalism attempts to present a multi-disciplinary perspective
on a particular story, drawing from popular culture, sports, political,
philosophical and literary sources. Gonzo journalism has been styled eclectic or untraditional. It remains a feature of popular magazines such as Rolling Stone magazine. It has a good deal in common with new journalism and on-line journalism (see above).
'Celebrity' or 'people' journalism
Another area of journalism that grew in stature in the 20th Century
is 'celebrity' or 'people' journalism, which focuses on the personal
lives of people, primarily celebrities, including movie and stage
actors, musical artists, models and photographers, other notable people
in the entertainment industry, as well as people who seek attention,
such as politicians, and people thrust into the attention of the
public, such as people who do something newsworthy.
Once the province of newspaper gossip columnists and gossip magazines, celebrity journalism has become the focus of national tabloid newspapers like the National Enquirer, magazines like People and Us Weekly, syndicated television shows like Entertainment Tonight, Inside Edition, The Insider, Access Hollywood, and Extra, cable networks like E!, A&E Network and The Biography Channel,
and numerous other television productions and thousands of websites.
Most other news media provide some coverage of celebrities and people.
Celebrity journalism differs from feature writing in that it focuses
on people who are either already famous or are especially attractive,
and in that it often covers celebrities obsessively, to the point of
these journalists behaving unethically in order to provide coverage. Paparazzi,
photographers who would follow celebrities incessantly to obtain
potentially embarrassing photographs, have come to characterize
celebrity journalism.
'Convergence journalism'
An emerging form of journalism, which combines different forms of
journalism, such as print, photographic and video, into one piece or
group of pieces. Convergence journalism can be found in the likes of
CNN and many other news sites. The Washington Post has a notable amount of this.
Ambush journalism
Ambush journalism refers to aggressive tactics practiced by
journalists to suddenly confront with questions people who otherwise do
not wish to speak to a journalist. The practice has particularly been
applied by television journalists, such as those on the CBS-TV news
show 60 Minutes and by Geraldo Rivera and other local television reporters conducting investigations.
The practice has been sharply criticized by journalists and others as being highly unethical and sensational,
while others defend it as the only way to attempt to provide those
subject to it an opportunity to comment for a report. Ambush journalism
has not been ruled illegal in the United States, although doing it on
private property could open a journalist to being charged with
trespassing.
Other
Role of journalism in a democracy
-
In the 1920s, as modern journalism was just taking form, writer Walter Lippmann and American philosopher John Dewey debated over the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize a debate about the role of journalism in society and the nation-state.
Lippmann understood that journalism's role at the time was to act as a mediator or translator between the public
and policymaking elites. The journalist became the middleman. When
elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information,
distilled it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His
reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to
deconstruct the growing and complex flurry of information present in
modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to filter news for
the masses. Lippman put it this way: The public is not smart enough to
understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was
too consumed with their daily lives to care about complex public
policy. Therefore the public needed someone to interpret the decisions
or concerns of the elite to make the information plain and simple. That
was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public would
affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the
meantime, the elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats,
scientists, etc.) would keep the business of power running. In
Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the public of what
the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the
elites, as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively
that kept the public at the bottom of the power chain, catching the
flow of information that is handed down from experts/elites.
Dewey, on the other hand, believed the public was not only
capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the
elite, it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after
discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the
best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists not
only had to inform the public, but should report on issues differently
than simply passing on information. In Dewey's world, a journalist's
role changed. Dewey believed that journalists should take in the
information, then weigh the consequences
of the policies being enacted by the elites on the public. Over time,
his idea has been implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly
known as "community journalism."
This concept of community journalism is at the centre of new
developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able
to engage citizens and the experts/elites in the proposition and
generation of content. It's important to note that while there is an
assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey
believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single
individual's knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's
framework, but there is not the hierarchical structure present in
Lippman's understanding of journalism and society. According to Dewey,
conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a democracy.
While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to
government leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how
many journalists see their role in society, and, in turn, how much of
society expects journalists to function. Americans, for example, may
criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists, but they tend
to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses
and other actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the
issues of the time.
The elements of journalism
According to The Elements of Journalism, a book by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosensteil, there are nine elements of journalism [1].
In order for a journalist to fulfill their duty of providing the people
with the information they need to be free and self-governing. They must
follow these guidelines:
- Journalism's first obligation is to the truth.
- Its first loyalty is to the citizens.
- Its essence is discipline of verification.
- Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover.
- It must serve as an independent monitor of power.
- It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.
- It must strive to make the significant interesting, and relevant.
- It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.
- Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.
On the April 2007 edition of the book [2], they have added one additional element, the rights and responsibilities of citizens to make it a total of ten elements of journalism.
Professional and ethical standards
Since the development of professional journalism
at the beginning of the 20th Century, journalists have been expected to
follow a stringent code of journalistic conduct that requires them to,
among other things:
- Use original sources of information, including interviews with
people directly involved in a story, original documents and other
direct sources of information, whenever possible, and cite the sources
of this information in reports;
- Fully attribute information gathered from other published sources,
should original sources not be available (not to do so is considered plagiarism; some newspapers also note when an article uses information from previous reports);
- Use multiple original sources of information, especially if the subject of the report is controversial;
- Check every fact reported;
- Find and report every side of a story possible;
- Report without bias, illustrating many aspects of a conflict rather than siding with one;
- Approach researching and reporting a story with a balance between objectivity and skepticism.
- Use careful judgment when organizing and reporting information.
- Be careful about granting confidentiality to sources (news
organizations usually have specific rules that journalists must follow
concerning grants of confidentiality);
- Decline gifts or favors from any subject of a report, to avoid the appearance of being influenced;
- Abstain from reporting or otherwise participating in the research
and writing about a subject in which the journalist has a personal
stake or bias that cannot be set aside.
This was in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th
Century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and
pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no
presumption of balance or objectivity. E.g., see (1).
Recognition of excellence in journalism
There are several professional organizations, universities and
foundations that recognize excellence in journalism in the USA. The Pulitzer Prize, administered by Columbia University in New York City, is awarded to newspapers, magazines and broadcast media for excellence in various kinds of journalism. The Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism gives the Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Awards for excellence in radio and television journalism, and the Scripps Howard Foundation gives the National Journalism Awards in 17 categories. The Society of Professional Journalists gives the Sigma Delta Chi Award for journalism excellence. In the television industry, the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives awards for excellence in television journalism.
Failing to uphold standards
Such a code of conduct can, in the real world, be difficult to
uphold consistently. Journalists who believe they are being fair or
objective may give biased accounts -- by reporting selectively,
trusting too much to anecdote, or giving a partial explanation of actions. (See Media bias.)
Even in routine reporting, bias can creep into a story through a
reporter's choice of facts to summarize, or through failure to check
enough sources, hear and report dissenting voices, or seek fresh
perspectives.
As much as reporters try to set aside their prejudices, they may
simply be unaware of them. Young reporters may be blind to issues
affecting the elderly. A 20-year veteran of the "police beat" may be
deaf to rumours of departmental corruption. Publications marketed to
affluent suburbanites may ignore urban problems. And, of course, naive
or unwary reporters and editors alike may fall prey to public relations, propaganda or disinformation.
News organizations provide editors, producers or news directors
whose job is to check reporters' work at various stages. But editors
can get tired, lazy, complac
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